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The case will present a series of situations and decisions that a business had to go through. This is a summary of the case: 

 

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This case illustrates the challenges that Pollo Campero, a Guatemalan fast-food company, faces when expanding in the US market. The case illustrates that Pollo Campero was initially very successful in the US market because it appealed to consumers of Central American origin. It found it harder to appeal to a broader range of US consumers, who had no emotional attachment to the brand.

Your job as a team is to create a compelling presentation that conveys the story that Pollo Campero went through. In order to do that please try to research everything that you can find about the company. If you find interesting videos, you can include them in your presentation. Please go through the company website and understand the company as much as you can. 

The business case touches issues on consumer segmentation, competitive strategy and the internationalization of emerging market multinationals. All of these topics should be viewed from an entrepreneurial perspective because opening operations in a foreign country is an entrepreneurial activity similar to opening a new business.

After explaining what the company went through, please open a discussion with your peers (students attending the class). Getting as many students engaged in the discussion will have a positive impact in your grades. The discussion should be around best possible solutions to the topics presented in the business case. 

Pollo Campero in the USA
Esteban R. Brenes

Strategy Department, INCAE Business School, Alajuela, Costa Rica

Amitava Chattopadyay
INSEAD Business School, Singapore, Singapore

Luciano Ciravegna
International Development Institute, King’s College London, London, UK and

INCAE Business School, Alajuela, Costa Rica, and

Daniel Montoya
INCAE Business School, Alajuela, Costa Rica

Abstract

Purpose – This case illustrates the challenges that Pollo Campero, a Guatemalan fast food company,
faces when expanding in the US market. The purpose of this paper is to stimulate a discussion
about consumer segmentation, competitive strategy and the internationalization of emerging market
multinationals.
Design/methodology/approach – The case study is based on primary research conducted in
conjunction with the company, including interviews with senior management and an ample review of
documents. Secondary sources have been used to gather information about the industry, the
US market and consumer segments.
Findings – The case illustrates that Pollo Campero was initially very successful in the US market
because it appealed to consumers of Central American origin. It found it harder to appeal to a broader
range of US consumers, who had no emotional attachment to the brand.
Originality/value – This is a complex, in-depth case study suitable for use with advanced MBA
students and practitioners. Depending on the aims of the instructor, different aspects of the case can be
highlighted and it can be used in a competitive strategy class as well as in a corporate strategy class or
a strategic marketing course. It can be used in a class focussing on brand, positioning and consumer
segmentation, a class on competitive strategy in the fast food industry, or a class on the international
strategy of emerging market multinationals.

Keywords Business strategy, USA, International marketing strategy,
Emerging market multinationals, Fast food industry, Internationalization

Paper type Case study

On a hot, steamy summer afternoon in Dallas, Roberto Denegri, President and COO of
Campero USA (CUSA) – a wholly-owned subsidiary of Guatemalan fast-food company
Pollo Campero Corporation – sat in his air-conditioned office in the Lincoln Centre
Tower II, grappling with the question of what CUSA’s growth strategy should be over
the next years. Pollo Campero Corporation entered the US in 2002 with a single
restaurant in Los Angeles (LA). Since then, it had expanded, largely because of its
popularity with customers of Central American origin. In 2007, the Board of Directors
of Pollo Campero Corporation moved CUSA from Guatemala to Dallas to better
manage its operations in the US Pollo Campero had an ambitious goal for CUSA –
to open approximately 300 restaurants by 2014. Now, in 2010, the number of
Pollo Campero restaurants had reached 48, covering 12 states and Washington, DC –
not a bad result per se, but not on pace with the goals set in 2007. The market research
report sitting on Denegri’s desk provided a clear picture of industry trends and
consumer segments in the US market. Pollo Campero’s Board of Directors had stated

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-1747.htm

Management Decision
Vol. 52 No. 9, 2014

pp. 1649-1679
r Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0025-1747
DOI 10.1108/MD-09-2013-0498

1649

Pollo Campero
in the USA

very clearly to Denegri that it expected CUSA to continue to be a key growth driver for
the corporation.

Denegri needed to evaluate the situation and prepare his recommendations for
the next Board meeting, happening in two weeks. Among other things, Denegri was
asking himself if it was time to change the way their brand and their company were
positioned in the USA.

Pollo Campero
Pollo Campero, loosely translated to “country chicken,” was founded in Guatemala in
1971. It offered customers a new fast-food concept in terms of flavor: a tender, juicy,
crispy chicken, marinated with a mix of spices highlighting Central American flavors.
In 1972, Pollo Campero expanded to neighboring El Salvador, taking advantage of
similarities in consumer tastes. By 1982, the company had 18 restaurants in Guatemala
and seven in El Salvador. In 1992, the company opened its first restaurant in Honduras,
where it had also acquired a poultry farm. Guatemalans, Salvadorians and Hondurans
traveled frequently throughout Central America, which helped Pollo Campero become
a well-known brand in the region. In 1997, Pollo Campero developed a franchise
program, which allowed the company to open stores in Panama and later in Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, Ecuador and Mexico.

Between 1997 and 2000, Campero became the most internationalized Latin
American fast-food chain, with 143 restaurants and nearly 6,000 employees. By 2001,
Pollo Campero had decided to enter the USA, encouraged by the large number of
people buying their fried chicken in El Salvador and Guatemala to bring to their
relatives in the USA. Pollo Campero Corporation CEO Juan José Gutierrez said[1]:

When boarding a flight from El Salvador or Guatemala to Los Angeles and other
destinations, you could smell the chicken all the way, so the Campero management team,
further motivated by suggestions from airline managers, resolved to take this opportunity to
offer their product to this market niche, and we did so through franchisees just as we had
been doing in Latin American countries.

In 2002, Pollo Campero opened its first US restaurant in LA through a franchise
agreement with ADIR Restaurants Corp., a sister company of La Curacao. La Curacao
sold consumer electronics, such as home computers and digital cameras, and home
appliances. It was an ideal partner for Pollo Campero because it was based in LA, the
US city with the largest number of Central Americans and, thus, catered specifically
to that population. For example, La Curacao provided export delivery services to
Guatemala and El Salvador. ADIR became a master developer in 2001 and was the only
sub-franchisor licensed by Pollo Campero to offer sub-franchises in California,
Washington, Oregon, Nevada, New Mexico and Arizona (Campero USA Corp, 2011).

The restaurant openings broke sales records in the industry, hitting $1 million in its
first 22 days (Arndt, 2010). Juan José Gutierrez commented:

People came to the newly-opened Pollo Campero and for several months, especially at the
beginning, the restaurant was full of customers. That was very encouraging. We found that
more people than normal came because some drove from far off places to visit, but only at the
opening time. Of course, after that they did return but just occasionally; therefore, we had to
keep with the Central Americans living near the restaurant.

Campero opened stores in other cities and states, especially those with large
settlements of Central Americans, such as DC, Texas and New York. In 2003,

1650

MD
52,9

Pollo Campero created CUSA, an organizational unit located in Guatemala, to manage
the operations in the USA. Operations Manager of CUSA Rodolfo Bianchini said:

Restaurants required someone to break in hands and make them ready for opening, so we
stayed between two and three weeks working on them. We spent about half of the year in
the United States.

Between 2002 and 2007, Pollo Campero opened 30 restaurants, targeting mainly the
Central Americans living in the USA. During the opening weeks, sales ranged between
US $10,000 and $50,000 per day in each restaurant, which, according to Denegri, was
above the average sales of competitors.

In 2007, the Board of Directors established a set of strategic objectives for the future.
Its objectives for the US market were to be among the top 50 quick-service restaurants
(QSRs) in terms of average annual sales, and to open approximately 300 restaurants by
2014. In order to facilitate learning about the US market, the Board of Directors moved
CUSA to Dallas. Dallas was chosen because of its proximity to Guatemala (a three-hour
flight) and because it was a strategic location for operations’ logistics. Roberto Denegri,
a manager with previous experience in the fast-food industry, was appointed President
and COO of CUSA, together with a finance director, an operations manager and a
person in charge of granting franchises. Denegri hired four new managers to improve
the marketing and operations of CUSA. Denegri had to report to Juan José Gutierrez,
CEO of Pollo Campero Corporation, and to the Board of Directors. The Board gave
Denegri the responsibility for ensuring that CUSA’s strategy was suited to achieving
the long-term objectives they had set (see Figure 1).

Initially, the restaurants in the USA were a simple copy-paste of its offering in
Central America. Waiters and cashiers spoke better Spanish than English since many
of them were Central Americans. In order to test new concepts and improve CUSA’s
organizational learning in the US market, Denegri decided to open some company-
owned restaurants. In 2007, CUSA opened two new restaurants in Dallas and bought
back 50 percent of a restaurant established in 2004 in a joint venture with a franchisee.
Dallas had 449,600 households with an average of 2.6 members and an average
household income of US $41,800. The Hispanic population accounted for 42.4 percent

Source: Pollo Campero USA Corp.

CEO

President/COO

Admin/Receptionist

Sr. Director of Treasury and
Accounting

Sr. Director of Company
Ops (Procurement) Marketing VP

Sr. Marketing
Manager

Marketing Manager

Field Marketing
Specialist

Director of
Operations Services

Director of Training

Training
Coordinator

EVP of Franchise
Operations

Director of
Licensing

Franchise Business
Consultant

Franchise Business
Consultant

Director of
Development

Paralegal

Human Resources

Accounting
Supervisor

Bookkeeper

Bookkeeper

Director of QA

Figure 1.
Pollo Campero USA Corp.
(CUSA) organization chart

1651

Pollo Campero
in the USA

of the entire population, most from Mexico and Central America, and whites and
blacks accounted for 28.8 and 25 percent, respectively. Neighboring cities, such as
Irving and Farmer Branch, also had large Hispanic communities.

By late 2007, there were 36 restaurants under the name of Pollo Campero. The
increase in restaurant openings was the result of an increased number of franchisees
(from seven to 20), each responsible for a smaller territory of three to five restaurants in
smaller geographical areas. The franchise opportunities were offered under a disclosure
document and were only for the development and operation of Pollo Campero
restaurants outside of the ADIR territory and within the USA. In November 2007, the
company also entered into an agreement with Wal-Mart to run Pollo Campero
restaurants inside Wal-Mart stores. It was a great opportunity to open stores nationwide.
Guiselle Ruiz, Vice-president and Regional General Manager of Wal-Mart Stores,
USA, said:

Our customers today come from many different backgrounds and all walks of life. Many
are Latin American, and they are among our fastest-growing markets. It stands to reason
that our offerings reflect the needs of the communities we serve. We know Pollo Campero
will add value to Wal-Mart with its premium Latin American restaurant brand (Marketwire,
2007).

Lorenzo L�opez, Wal-Mart Stores Inc. spokesman, stated: “It’s kind of like when we’re
looking at salsa versus ketchup and tortillas versus bread” (Daily News, 2008).

Between 2008 and 2009, CUSA achieved an improvement in its financial results
(see Tables I and II).

However, by June 2010, the growth rate defined during the 2007 strategy session
and the goal of 300 restaurants by 2014, were not being accomplished. Pollo Campero
had only 48 stores in 12 states and Washington, DC (see Table III).

Pollo Campero restaurants feature brightly colored booths with Latin authenticity,
and 50 percent of them have drive-through windows (see Plate 1). The US menu
included fried plantains and milky horchata, drinks from its original menu, but also
uniquely American dishes such as grilled chicken and mashed potatoes, aimed to
appeal to US consumers at large (see Figure 2). The cooking process of chicken,
marinated with over 20 ingredients, including spices native to Central America and
breaded by hand, made the flavor penetrate to the bone. The chicken was juicy and free
of trans-fat, differentiating Campero from other restaurants. The beans cooked and
served at the restaurants resulted from a blend of nine ingredients.

Campero’s prices varied all across the USA. On average, they tended to be on
par with KFC and a little less than Popeye’s. However, both of those brands invested
large sums on TV advertising, generating a stronger value perception with consumers.
Campero, lacking the resources to compete with KFC and Popeye’s through
advertising, introduced new promotions. It imitated its competitors by offering eight
pieces of chicken for $7.99 and by adding snacks to the menu with prices from US $0.99
for products such as a tortilla with chicken, which attracted new consumers.
CUSA soon realized that the copy-paste approach would not work everywhere. In
Central America, Pollo Campero is well recognized. In the USA, the name was totally
unfamiliar, except to customers with Central American roots. Rodolfo Bianchini clearly
appreciated this and said with regard to the restaurant in Wal-Mart:

Most people didn’t know the brand. However, we are simply a “chicken” concept. So people
came over and tried the product and in most cases they ended up very pleased
(Daily News, 2008).

1652

MD
52,9

2009 2008

Revenues
Royalties 2,856,503.00 2,497,954.00
Store development fees 1,409,063.00 243,750.00
Franchise fees 80,000.00 70,000.00
Others 98,923.00 70,095.00

Total revenues 4,444,489.00 2,881,799.00
Expenses

General and administrative expenses 1,204,765.00 1,391,182.00
Advertising and marketing 136,139.00 499,624.00
Professional fees 784,611.00 1,553,020.00
Project development 36,959.00 321,799.00
Salaries and payroll taxes 3,412,549.00 3,505,202.00
Travel 561,183.00 723,917.00

Total operating expenses 6,136,206.00 7,994,744.00
Loss before provision for income taxes – –
Net loss (1,691,717.00) (5,112,945.00)

Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)
Table II.

Statement of operations

2009 2008

Assets
Current assets

Cash and cash equivalents 414,597.00 1,217,233.00
Accounts receivable, net of allowance for doubtful accounts of
approximately US $ 67,000 and US $38,000 as of June 30, 2009
and 2008, respectively 219,967.00 330,819.00
Due from related parties and others 494,482.00 307,130.00
Prepaid expenses and other current assets 64,441.00 127,275.00

Total current assets 1,193,487.00 1,982,457.00
Restricted cash 267,317.00 255,000.00
Note receivable, franchisee 1,080,000.00 –
Property and equipment, net 533,738.00 347,656.00
Due from related parties, less current portion 608,722.00 1,182,205.00
Deposits and other assets 60,905.00 24,071.00
Total assets 3,744,169.00 3,791,389.00
Liabilities and stockholder’s deficit
Current liabilities

Accounts payable 202,299.00 727,518.00
Accrued expenses 458,301.00 745,105.00
Deferred revenue 768,750.00 1,220,000.00
Due to related parties – current portion 77,928.00 –

Total current liabilities 1,507,278.00 2,692,623.00
Due to related parties, less current portion 2,309,498.00 1,080,243.00
Deferred revenue 839,687.00 1,240,000.00
Total liabilities 4,656,463.00 5,012,866.00
Commitments and contingencies
Stockholder’s deficit (913,294.00) (1,221,477.00)
Total liabilities and stockholder’s deficit 3,743,169.00 3,791,389.00

Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)

Table I.
Pollo Campero USA corp.

(CUSA) 2008 and 2008
balance sheet

1653

Pollo Campero
in the USA

Less than 1 percent of the US population identified themselves as Central Americans.
Their family income did not exceed $40,000 per year. They visited QSRs about five
times per week, spending between US $22 and US $26 per week. Attracting
Central Americans to its restaurants had been easy, but their small numbers limited
the prospect for Campero’s future growth in the US Denegri realized that in order to
decide which strategy to adopt, CUSA needed to understand how the broader set
of US consumers perceived Pollo Campero and its main competitors: how did they
perceive the name, the facilities, the products, and the experience? Were they
comfortable in different environments, such as the “Latin” environment of Campero?
What did they expect from going into a Campero restaurant? Was it feasible to target
mainstream Americans? Or were there other groups that CUSA could target? To
analyze the engagement of customers, Denegri used an analytic framework provided
by an external consulting firm (see Figure 3).

State Year

Outlets at

beginning

of year

Outlets

opened Terminations

Non-

renewals

Re-acquired

by franchisor

Ceased

operations –

other reasons

Outlets at

year end

Arizona 2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2009 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

California 2008 15 3 0 0 0 1 17

2009 17 1 0 0 0 4 14

Florida 2008 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

2009 1 2 0 0 0 0 3

Georgia 2008 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

2009 1 2 0 0 0 0 3

Illinois 2008 1 1 0 0 0 0 2

2009 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

Maryland 2008 3 0 0 0 0 0 3

2009 3 1 0 0 0 0 4

Massachusetts 2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2009 0 2 0 0 0 0 2

North Carolina 2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2009 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

New Jersey 2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2009 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

New York 2008 2 2 0 0 0 0 4

2009 4 4 0 0 0 2 6

Rhode Island 2008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2009 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

South Carolina 2008 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

2009 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Texas 2008 5 0 0 0 0 1 4

2009 4 3 0 0 0 0 7

Virginia 2008 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

2009 2 1 0 0 0 0 3

Washington DC 2008 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

2009 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

Total USA 2008 30 8 0 0 0 2 36

2009 36 19 0 0 0 6 48

Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)

Table III.
Campero chicken
restaurants in the USA

1654

MD
52,9

The core customers, Central Americans, focussed on the quality of the food and
overlooked other components of the experience because their cultural heritage strongly
connected them with the brand. However, new consumers were not familiar with
Pollo Campero and lacked this clear connection. Brand elements, such as the name and
the logo, were unclear and confusing to them. The consultants from ABC Consulting
Co.[2], a firm hired by CUSA in 2009 to help it change its strategy, mentioned that
“the little chicken” in the logo was infantile, cheap and did not reflect the food quality
of Campero. In addition, the logo typography had some cowboy features; its shape
was similar to that of many of their competitors; and, like Campero, some competitors
also used the Spanish word “Pollo” in their names.

According to the market research carried out by ABC Consulting Co., the atmosphere
of Pollo Campero attracted Central Americans and, in some cases, Hispanics. They
suggested to Denegri that such a Hispanic environment may not be appealing to
non-Hispanic Americans, who comprised the largest percentage of population and had
the most purchasing power (see Figure 4).

In addition to its foray into the USA, Pollo Campero Corporation crossed the
Atlantic in 2006 to open a restaurant in Spain and then one in Andorra. It did so
through a joint venture between Pollo Campero Corporation and Agrolimen, a Spanish
business group, through its affiliate company Eat Out Group, owner of the Pans
and Company chain, ranking number one in bocadillo/sandwich sales in Spain. Their
franchise in Central America was run by Pollo Campero Corporation. In the following
years, the group entered China, Indonesia, Bahrain and India through joint ventures
with local businesses. By the summer of 2012, Pollo Campero Corporation accounted
for US $400 million. Revenue came from the more than 80 million customers it served
yearly in 14 countries (see Table IV) through a network of some 330þ restaurants.
The Corporation had three divisions: The Latam division based in Guatemala ran
the Latin American business; CUSA ran the USA out of the Dallas HQ; and a third
division called Campero International Franchising ran the rest of the world from its
headquarters in Spain.

Source: Pollo Campero USA Corp.

Plate 1.
Restaurant

1655

Pollo Campero
in the USA

Franchise agreement
Through its franchises, CUSA allowed franchisees to operate Pollo Campero stores
that sold the unique Pollo Campero chicken products. Franchisees signed a Store
Development Agreement to develop a single specific location or a network of
Pollo Campero stores within a targeted area under the Store Development Program.
A network typically consisted of three or more stores. In addition to the typical
Pollo Campero Store, CUSA granted to qualified prospects the right to operate
a Pollo Campero “Express Unit.” An Express Unit was suited to some urban areas and
special venues, where conditions required a more-concise format, such as inside
shopping malls and airports, and could include special distribution opportunities
offered to franchisees (Campero USA Corp., 2011).

All Pollo Campero stores had to be developed and operated to meet CUSA
specifications and standards. The Franchise Agreement was limited to specific
location(s), and CUSA had the right to set up restaurants or issue franchises aiming to

Source: Pollo Campero USA Corp.

Figure 2.
Pollo campero menu

1656

MD
52,9

capture customers in the same geographic area, subject to the limited territory granted
in a Store Development Agreement. The specifications and standards included a
distinctive exterior and interior design, decor, color and identification schemes and
furnishings; special menu items; the unique flavor of their fried chicken, marinated and
breaded with a secret formula; standards, specifications and operation procedures;
quality of products and services offered; management programs; training and
assistance; and marketing and promotional programs, all of which CUSA could
change, supplement, and further develop.

Source: InterBrand Design Forum, “Segmentation and Brand
Strategy”, Pollo Campero, June 18, 2010

Affinity

Enabling

Tr
a
n
sa

ct
io

n
a
l

In
te

rp
e
rs

o
n

a
l

Emotional
Higher Social Value
Helps Define Me
Attachment Based on
Extroverted Wants

General
Broad
Impersonal
Product-Driven
Mass

Functional
Lower Social Value
Works With Me
Attachment Based on Introverted
Needs

Specific, Specialized
Deep

Personal
Service-Driven

Unique

Figure 3.
Framework of analysis:

engagement

Source: United States Census Bureau (2011b)

Population of
largest group

DC
10,000,000
5,000,000
1,000,000
100,000

Hispanic origin group

Cuban
Dominican
Mexican
Puerto Rican
Salvadoran

00 100 Miles

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2010 Census
Summary File l.

0 100 Miles 50 Miles

Figure 4.
Distribution of hispanic

population in the USA

1657

Pollo Campero
in the USA

CUSA had three different store formats. The Free-Standing Pollo Campero retail stores
did not share any common walls with a third party and had their own parking areas.
They generally required a lot ranging from 1,400 to 4,000 m2 (15,000-43,000 sq. ft.) and
a building ranging from 170 to 260 m

2
(1,800-2,800 sq. ft.) in size. The total investment

required to begin operation of a Free-Standing location ranged between $826,537
and $1,652,500. The second format, In-Line Pollo Campero stores were mid-sized
restaurants located in commercial properties sharing a common wall with a third
party, such as in a strip mall. They were generally 185 to 300 m2 (2,000-3,200 sq. ft.)
in size. Total investment for an In-Line location ranged from $651,950 to $1,433,500.
Finally, the Express Pollo Campero units were smaller restaurants, such as a counter
at a food court in a shopping mall. They were generally from 65 to 150 m2

(700-1,600 sq. ft.) in size. Total investment for this format ranged from $312,421 to
$679,500.

These investment ranges included a $40,000 initial franchise fee, and if the
franchisee leased or subleased the premises from CUSA, $5,000 for the security deposit
and prepaid rental charges would be required, for a total of $45,000 in initial fees that
had to be paid to CUSA or its affiliates before the franchisee opened for business
(see Table V). Two others fees, the “Continuing Franchise Fee” and the “Continuing
Advertising Fee,” each amounting to 5.0 percent of gross sales, had to be paid
weekly. Monitoring of sales and operating costs at different types of stores showed
variability in performance between the eastern and western regions of the USA
(see Tables VI and VII).

US industry and competitive landscape
In 2009, there were over 945,000 food-service outlets in the USA employing 12.7 million
people. The National Restaurant Association (NRA) projected a 2.5 percent increase in
industry revenues in 2010 over 2009, reaching US $580 billion (see Table VIII). Stores
were categorized by their nature as either commercial sites, accounting for 91.4 percent
of revenues, or non-commercial ones, accounting for 8.6 percent (see Table IX).

Franchises Country Stores

Affiliates Pollo Campero, S.A (“PC”), Guatemala 139
Pollo Campero de El Salvador, S.A. de C.V. (“PCES”) El Salvador 89
Pollo Campero, S.A (“PC”), Honduras 15
Varesse, S.A. de C.V. (“VAR”) Mexico 3
Inversiones 12,995, S.A. Costa Rica 19
Campero International, Corp. (“CIC”), Nicaragua 5
Campero USA Corp. (CUSA) USA 50
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) Spain 8
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) Andorra 1
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) Indonesia 3
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) Bahrain 2
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) Ecuador 5
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) India 2
Pollo Campero Iberia, (“PC Iberia”) UK 1
Pollo Campero of Canada, Inc. Canada 0

Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)

Table IV.
Pollo Campero global
expansion

1658

MD
52,9

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m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
ee

la
n

d
lo

rd
a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

R
ea

l
p

ro
p

er
ty

:
si

te
d

ev
el

o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s,

fr
ee

-s
ta

n
d

in
g

$
5
0
,0

0
0
-$

1
9
7
,5

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
ee

la
n

d
lo

rd
a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

A
d

d
it

io
n

a
l

d
ev

el
o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s

$
3
7
,0

0
0
-$

1
7
3
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
ee

la
n

d
lo

rd
a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

R
es

ta
u

ra
n

t
eq

u
ip

m
en

t,
fi

x
tu

re
s

$
1
6
7
,0

0
0
-$

2
7
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
S

ig
n

s
$
1
7
,0

0
0
-$

6
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
P

O
S

$
2
2
,0

0
0
-$

4
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
P

la
y

a
re

a
eq

u
ip

m
en

t
$
1
9
,1

4
0
-$

3
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
O

p
en

in
g

in
v

en
to

ry
$
1
5
,0

0
0
-$

3
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

B
ef

o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
M

is
ce

ll
a
n

eo
u

s
o
p

en
in

g
co

st
s

$
6
,7

5
0
-$

2
7
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

S
u

p
p

li
er

s,
u

ti
li

ti
es

,
em

p
lo

y
ee

s,
et

c.
U

n
if

o
rm

s
$
1
,5

0
0
-$

2
,5

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

B
ef

o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
In

su
ra

n
ce

$
2
0
,0

0
0
-$

5
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

B
ef

o
re

o
p

en
in

g
In

su
ra

n
ce

co
m

p
a
n

y
/a

g
en

t
T

ra
v

el
a
n

d
li

v
in

g
ex

p
en

se
s

w
h

il
e

tr
a
in

in
g

$
2
,0

0
0
-$

1
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
d

u
ri

n
g

tr
a
in

in
g

A
ir

li
n

es
,

re
n

ta
l

ca
r

a
g

en
ci

es
,

re
st

a
u

ra
n

ts
,

h
o
te

ls
,

et
c.

M
a
rk

et
in

g
st

a
rt

-u
p

ex
p

en
d

it
u

re
$
2
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

A
s

p
er

co
n

tr
a
ct

,
b

ef
o

re
o
p

en
in

g
T

h
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s,

a
p

p
ro

v
ed

su
p

p
li

er
s

A
d

d
it

io
n

a
l

fu
n

d
s

fo
r

th
e

fi
rs

t
si

x
m

o
n

th
s

o
f

o
p

er
a
ti

o
n

$
3
6
,0

0
0
-$

5
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

M
o
n

th
ly

a
n

d
a
s

in
cu

rr
ed

T
h

ir
d

p
a
rt

ie
s

a
n

d
em

p
lo

y
ee

s

T
o
ta

ls
$
8
2
6
,5

3
7
-$

1
,6

5
2
,5

0
0

D
o
es

n
o
t

in
cl

u
d

e
re

a
l

es
ta

te
co

st
s

In
-l
in

e
st

o
re

s
es

ti
m

a
te

in
it

ia
l

in
v
es

tm
en

t

In
it

ia
l

fe
e

fr
a
n

ch
is

e
fe

e
$
4
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

p
er

p
a
y

m
en

t
sc

h
ed

u
le

fo
r

q
u

a
li

fi
ed

in
ce

n
ti

v
e

p
ro

g
ra

m
s

G
en

er
a
ll

y
p

a
id

a
t

ti
m

e
o
f

ex
ec

u
ti

o
n

o
f

th
e

S
to

re
D

ev
el

o
p

m
en

t
A

g
re

em
en

t
(“

S
D

A
”)

C
a
m

p
er

o
U

S
A

C
o

rp
.

R
ea

l
p

ro
p

er
ty

:
b

u
il

d
in

g
/b

u
il

d
o
u

t
co

st
s

$
2
1
0
,0

0
0
-$

6
9
7
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(y
o
u

r
la

n
d

lo
rd

a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

(c
o
n
ti
n
u
ed

)

Table V.
Free-standing and

inline stores estimate
initial investment

1659

Pollo Campero
in the USA

T
y

p
e

o
f

ex
p

en
d

it
u

re
A

m
o
u

n
t

M
et

h
o
d

o
f

p
a
y

m
en

t
D

u
e

P
a
y

to

R
ea

l
p

ro
p

er
ty

:
si

te
d

ev
el

o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s,

fr
ee

-s
ta

n
d

in
g

$
0
-$

2
7
,5

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(y
o
u

r
la

n
d

lo
rd

a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

A
d

d
it

io
n

a
l

d
ev

el
o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s

$
6
,0

0
0
-$

8
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(y
o
u

r
la

n
d

lo
rd

a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

R
es

ta
u

ra
n

t
eq

u
ip

m
en

t,
fi

x
tu

re
s

$
1
6
7
,0

0
0
-$

2
7
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
S

ig
n

s
$
6
,0

0
0
-$

5
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
P

O
S

$
2
0
,0

0
0
-$

4
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
P

la
y

a
re

a
eq

u
ip

m
en

t
$
1
5
,0

0
0
-$

3
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
O

p
en

in
g

in
v

en
to

ry
$
1
5
,0

0
0
-$

3
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
M

is
ce

ll
a
n

eo
u

s
o
p

en
in

g
co

st
s

$
6
,7

5
0
-$

2
7
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

L
u

m
p

su
m

a
s

in
cu

rr
ed

S
u

p
p

li
er

s,
u

ti
li

ti
es

,
em

p
lo

y
ee

s,
et

c.
U

n
if

o
rm

s
$
1
,2

0
0
-$

2
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

B
ef

o
re

o
p

en
in

g
A

p
p

ro
v

ed
su

p
p

li
er

s
In

su
ra

n
ce

$
1
8
,0

0
0
-$

4
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

B
ef

o
re

o
p

en
in

g
In

su
ra

n
ce

co
m

p
a
n

y
/a

g
en

t
T

ra
v

el
a
n

d
li

v
in

g
ex

p
en

se
s

w
h

il
e

tr
a
in

in
g

$
2
,0

0
0
-$

1
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
d

u
ri

n
g

tr
a
in

in
g

A
ir

li
n

es
,

re
n

ta
l

ca
r

a
g

en
ci

es
,

re
st

a
u

ra
n

ts
,

h
o
te

ls
,

et
c.

M
a
rk

et
in

g
st

a
rt

-u
p

ex
p

en
d

it
u

re
$
2
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

A
s

p
er

co
n

tr
a
ct

,
b

ef
o

re
o
p

en
in

g
T

h
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s,

a
p

p
ro

v
ed

su
p

p
li

er
s

A
d

d
it

io
n

a
l

fu
n

d
s

fo
r

th
e

fi
rs

t
si

x
m

o
n

th
s

o
f

o
p

er
a
ti

o
n

$
3
5
,0

0
0
-$

5
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

M
o
n

th
ly

a
n

d
a
s

in
cu

rr
ed

T
h

ir
d

p
a
rt

ie
s

a
n

d
em

p
lo

y
ee

s

T
o
ta

ls
$
6
5
1
,9

5
0

to
$
1
,4

3
3
,5

0
0

(D
o
es

n
o
t

in
cl

u
d

e
re

a
l

es
ta

te
co

st
s)

E
x
p
re

ss
U

n
it

In
it

ia
l

fe
e

fr
a
n

ch
is

e
fe

e
$
4
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

p
er

p
a
y

m
en

t
sc

h
ed

u
le

fo
r

q
u

a
li

fi
ed

in
ce

n
ti

v
e

p
ro

g
ra

m
s

G
en

er
a
ll

y
p

a
id

a
t

ti
m

e
o
f

ex
ec

u
ti

o
n

o
f

th
e

S
to

re
D

ev
el

o
p

m
en

t
A

g
re

em
en

t
(“

S
D

A
”)

C
a
m

p
er

o
U

S
A

C
o

rp
.

R
ea

l
p

ro
p

er
ty

:
b

u
il

d
in

g
/b

u
il

d
o
u

t
co

st
s

$
4
8
,0

0
0
-$

2
0
5
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
ee

la
n

d
lo

rd
a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

R
ea

l
p

ro
p

er
ty

:
si

te
d

ev
el

o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s,

fr
ee

-s
ta

n
d

in
g

n
/a

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
ee

la
n

d
lo

rd
a
n

d
/o

r
co

n
tr

a
ct

o
r)

A
d

d
it

io
n

a
l

d
ev

el
o
p

m
en

t
co

st
s

$
1
0
,0

0
0
-$

4
0
,0

0
0

L
u

m
p

su
m

o
r

fi
n

a
n

ce
d

A
s

in
cu

rr
ed

,
b

ef
o
re

o
p

en
in

g
U

S
A

o
r

th
ir

d
p

a
rt

ie
s

(f
ra

n
ch

is
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Table V.

1660

MD
52,9

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Table V.

1661

Pollo Campero
in the USA

Limited-service restaurants, which included fast-food chains (QSRs), provided a quick
and cheaper alternative to traditional full-service restaurants. This industry was
estimated to be worth around US $164.8 billion in 2009. In this type of restaurant,
consumers served themselves by bringing food to their own tables and pouring drinks
from a fountain. The average customer paid US $3.90 in the morning, US $5.60 for
lunch, US $6.00 for dinner and $3.50 for a snack in the course of the afternoon
(Campero USA Corp, 2011).

The “fast-casual restaurants” (FC) were a limited-service category of restaurants,
serving fast, convenient food, but focussing on providing a great experience for
customers through food with good taste, appearance and freshness in addition to
a friendly atmosphere and excellent service. These restaurants combined the strategy
of full-service restaurants with that of QSRs. The average meal sold for US $10 (Green,
2012). Although customers and industry experts valued what these restaurants offered,
they continued to classify them as QSRs. Fast-casual was the only category of

Region Easterna Westernb

Type of unit Average gross sales Average gross sales

Free-standing 1,743,155 978,731.00
In-line 1,154,894 1,374,825.00
Express n/a 553,547.00

Notes:
aStates: AK, AL, CT, DC, DE, FL, GA, HI, IL, IN, KY, MA, MD, ME, MI, MS, NC, NH, NJ, NY,

OH, PA, RI, SC, TN, VA, VT, WV, WI; bstates: AR, AZ, CA, CO, IA, ID, KS, LA, MD, ME, MI, MS, NC,
NH, NJ, NY, OH, PA, MN, MO, MT, ND, NE, NM, NV, RI, SC, TN, VA, VT, WV, WI, OK, OR, PR, SD, TX,
UT, WA, WY
Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)

Table VI.
Average gross sales
per restaurant

Region Eastern Western

At/Below At/Below
Type of unit Number Percentage

Avg. food and
paper cost (%) Number Percentage

Avg. food and
paper cost (%)

Free-Standing 4 40 32.0 3 47.1 33.1
In-Line 2 5
Express 0 0

At/Below At/Below
Type of unit Number Percentage Avg. labor cost (%) Number Percentage Avg. labor cost (%)
Free-Standing 4 33.3 22.8 2 41.2 27.6
In-line 1 5
Express 0 0

Notes: During the reporting period, there were ten Free-standing units and five In-Line units in the
Eastern Region and nine Free-Standing units; seven In-Line units; and one Express unit in the Western
Region. Food/Paper (referred to below for convenience as “food”) means food, beverages and items
served or associated with the food or beverage, such as cups, napkins, straws, bags, plastic utensils
and wrapping paper. Labor means salaries, payroll, and similar related expenses. % At/below average
means the percentage of stores included in the data whose applicable costs are at or below the stated
average. The above food and labor costs are stated as a percentage of gross sales (excluding sales tax
and discounts)
Source: Campero USA Corp. (2011, p. 365)

Table VII.
Operating costs
by region and
restaurant type

1662

MD
52,9

restaurants experiencing growth after the 2009 recession. The NRA vice-president for
research said that fast-casual restaurants would have a better performance than the
rest of the industry since it captured the sweet spot between QSRs and casual dining.
Fast and convenient service was like QSRs, but had much-higher-quality food,
an atmosphere similar to that of casual dining, and reasonable prices that fell between
the two.

In general, 43 percent of sales in this industry were made at dinnertime, 31 percent
at lunchtime and 9 percent at breakfast. The remaining 17 percent of sales took
place while customers traveled (10 percent) or purchased snacks (7 percent) (Miller
and Associates 2011). The restaurant industry operations report developed by NRA
indicated that full-service restaurants’ sales of solid food accounted for 79 percent
of total sales, with drinks accounting for 21 percent. The figures for limited-service
restaurants were 86 and 4 percent, respectively, plus 10 percent for other products. The
most important cost for both full- and limited-service restaurants was raw materials
used in the preparation of dishes – US $61.1 billion and US $48.8 billion, respectively
(see Table X).

In 2003, 53 percent of customers visited one of the big restaurant chains, while
14 percent visited a small chain and 33 percent visited independent or local
restaurants. Six years later, in 2009, 59 percent of customers visited the big chains,
11 percent small chains and 30 percent independent or local restaurants.

In the US there were 196 full-service restaurant chains and 99 limited-service chains.
Full-service restaurant chains included Applebee’s, Neighborhood Grill & Bar, Chili’s
Grill & Bar, TGI Friday’s, Olive Garden, On the Border Mexican Grill & Cantina,
Red Lobster, Outback Steakhouse and Denny’s. Limited-Service QSR chains included
McDonald’s, Burger King, Taco Bell, KFC, Wendy’s, Subway, Popeye’s Chicken &
Biscuits, Church’s Chicken and Pollo Campero. Limited-Service fast-casual chains
included Panera Bread, Chipotle Mexican Grill, Qdoba Mexican Grill and Chick-fil-A
(Franchise Times, 2008).

Chipotle Mexican Grill specialized in offering a broad range of ingredients that
customers could choose for their burritos, tacos and salads. An important ingredient
was chicken, described as follows: “It comes from naturally-raised chicken and is
marinated overnight with our spicy smoked chipotle, then grilled. Grill marks give it a
subtle, caramelized flavor” (Chipotle Mexican Grill, 2012a).

Year US $ current growth (%) Real growth (%)

2000 5.50 3.00
2001 4.60 0.80
2002 5.30 1.20
2003 4.50 2.10
2004 6.20 3.00
2005 5.30 2.20
2006 4.70 1.60
2007 4.80 1.00
2008 3.20 �1.20
2009 �0.70 �2.90
2010a 2.50 �0.10

Note:
aEstimated

Source: Miller and Associates (2011, p. 416)

Table VIII.
Restaurant industry

sales growth

1663

Pollo Campero
in the USA

Category US$ Billions % Growth 2009-2010

Restaurant and food services industry 580.00 100 2.5
Commercial 530.31 91.4 –

Eating and drinking places
Full-service restaurants 184.17 31.8 1.2
Limited-service (including QSR and fast casual)
restaurants 164.83 28.4 3
Snack and non-alcoholic beverage bars 24.73 4.3 2.4
Bars and taverns 18.84 3.2 2
Social caterers 7.09 1.2 4.5
Cafeterias, grill-buffets, and buffets 7.67 1.3 2.2
Total 407.35 70.2 2.1

Food service contractor-managed services
Colleges and universities 13.64 2.4 5.7
Manufacturing and industrial plants 6.65 1.1 �0.5
Primary and secondary schools 5.86 1.0 5.4
Recreation and sports centers 5.02 0.9 4
Hospitals and nursing homes 5.05 0.9 6.7
Commercial and office buildings 2.56 0.4 1.8
In-transit foodservice (airlines) 2.06 0.4 0.7
Total 40.84 7.0 4

Retail and lodging
Retail-host restaurants 30.93 5.3 4.9
Hotel restaurants 26.53 4.6 4.6
Recreation and sports (includes movies, bowling
lanes, recreation, and sport centers) 12.52 2.2 2.5
Vending and non-store retailers (includes sales of hot
food, sandwiches, pastries, coffee, and other hot
beverages) 11.1 1.9 1.2
Mobile caterers 0.635 0.1 �1.7
Other accommodation restaurants 0.407 0.1 3.2
Total 82.12 14.2 2.5

Noncommercial 49.68 8.6 –
Noncommercial restaurant services (businesses, educational, government, or institutional
organizations which operate their own restaurant services)

Hospitals (includes voluntary, proprietary hospitals,
long-term general, TB, nervous and mental hospitals,
state and local short-term hospitals, and federal
hospitals) 15.22 2.6 4.7
Clubs, sporting, and recreational camps 8.55 1.5 0.9
Nursing homes (includes homes for the aged, blind,
orphaned, and the mentally and physically disabled) 7.14 1.2 2.6
Public and parochial elementary, secondary schools 6.14 1.1 2.2
Colleges and universities 6.08 1.0 �1.4
Community centers 2.14 0.4 4.8
Transportation 1.83 0.3 4.3
Employee restaurant services 0.426 0.1 2.1
Total 47.52 8.2 2.5

Military restaurant services
Officer and NCO clubs (open mess) 1.48 0.3 3.7
Military exchanges 0.679 0.1 3.1
Total 2.16 0.4 3.5

Source: Miller and Associates (2011, p. 416)

Table IX.
Food service industry
structure and income
distribution

1664

MD
52,9

Chipotle also sold beef, pork, vegetables, rice, beans, guacamole, sour cream and spicy
sauces. Guacamole was made onsite; and fresh foods, such as onions, were cut and
prepared manually. Steve Ells, Chipotle founder and CEO, said that the atmosphere at
these restaurants was a simple but unique experience:

Perceiving sounds and smells and seeing when something is cooked can really help whet your
appetite. Unfortunately in many restaurants the “cooking” part is more like a science
experiment. For this reason, each Chipotle is designed with an open kitchen facing the entire
restaurant (Chipotle Mexican Grill, 2012b).

Ten chains with chicken as their main course ranked among the top 50 QSR chains in
the USA (see Table XI). Kentucky Fried Chicken was the largest, with revenues of
US $4.9 billion, 5,200 stores in the USA and 15,580 worldwide.

Every day, more than four million people are served at KFC restaurants in the USA.
Every year, they ate 800 million muffins, 45 million kilograms (almost 100 million
pounds) of coleslaw and 90 million kilograms (almost 200 million pounds) of mashed
potatoes. Annual chicken sales were estimated at US $1.8 billion. The main product
was the original recipe. Chicken was marinated with 11 different species and cooked
under pressure. It was also sold as extra crispy or in strips. Also on the menu was

Chains
Total sales
US$ million

Annual sales
per unit

US$ thousands

Units
Under license
or franchise Company-owned Total

KFC 4,900.0 960.00 4,307 855 5,162
Chick-fil-A 3,217.0 2,095.00 205 1,275 1,480
Popeye’s 1,597.0 1,057.50 1,539 37 1,576
Church’s Chicken 835.0 680.00 975 287 1,262
Zaxby’s 718.0 1,581.00 406 86 492
Bojangles’ 659.5 1,556.40 296 163 459
El Pollo Loco 582.0 1,600.00 243 172 415
Boston Market 545.0 1,020.00 0 520 520
Wingstop 306.6 744.00 425 23 448
Wing Zone 56.0 580.00 96 4 100

Source: QSR magazine, www.qsrmagazine.com/reports/chicken

Table XI.
Pollo Campero in the USA,

major limited-service
restaurant chains

specializing in chicken

Restaurants
Categories Full service Limited-service

Cost of food and beverages sold 32 33
Salaries and wages 30 30
Restaurant occupancy costs 7 6
General and administrative expenses 3 8
Pretax income 4 3
Other (including direct operating expenses, marketing, utilities,
maintenance, depreciation, administrative, interest, and
corporate overhead) 20 20

Source: Miller and Associates (2011, p. 416)

Table X.
Pollo Campero in the USA,

2009 cost structure for
full-service and limited-

service restaurants

1665

Pollo Campero
in the USA

roasted chicken with hot sauce or BBQ sauce. Individual dishes could cost US $1 if the
products were on promotion, but usually they were around US $6 with side dishes
and beverage (soda or iced tea.) They offered children’s menu and family combos
(around US $18 for five people) and focussed on serving customers quickly and only at
the counter, where customers ordered, paid for and picked up their food. Customers
could not see the kitchen from the counter, as it was after hidden behind dispensers for
ready-packed food to serve customers quickly (Kentucky Fried Chicken, 2012).

Chick-fil-A, based in Atlanta, Georgia specialized in marketing sandwiches made
with breaded boneless chicken breast. Sandwiches featured different cheese types,
salsa and lettuce or tomato. The menu also included nuggets, wraps, and a wide range
of salads in large plates or bowls, chicken soup with tortilla and chicken breast
soup with vegetables, French fried potatoes and coleslaw. Tables were decorated
with natural flowers. Restaurants offered a welcoming family-oriented environment.
Chick-fil-A had some 500 stores in 39 states and Washington, DC and was a strong
supporter of the local communities.

The Popeye’s fried chicken chain featured a restaurant and menu design reflecting
the excitement of New Orleans, where it began in 1972. It offered marinated chicken in
the traditional Louisiana style, characterized by a spicy condiment, as well as dishes
such as mashed potatoes, muffins, coleslaw, red beans and rice, green beans and
applesauce. Service and promotions were very similar to KFC’s, as were their different
forms of chicken and sauces. Unique products on their menu included a flour-tortilla
burrito, made with red beans, rice and chicken (Popeye’s, 2012).

Originally from San Antonio Texas, Church’s Chicken was another chain
specializing in fried chicken. Their products and service closely resembled KFC’s.
They described their product as high-quality, freshly prepared chicken that was
different from their competitors’ product as a result of care taken in preparing the food.
In addition to its original fried chicken, Church’s offered spicy chicken, boneless
chicken wings with spicy sauce, BBQ or sweet and sour chicken, chicken burgers,
chips, handmade muffins, corn, fried jalapenos and coleslaw. It was present in
22 countries, with 1,625 restaurants (Church’s Chicken, 2012).

The “Pollo Loco” chain, founded in Mexico in 1975, had more than 400 restaurants
in California, Arizona, Nevada, Texas, Illinois, Connecticut, Oregon and Utah. However,
most of their restaurants were located in LA, where they had their real market share;
they had not been able to expand successfully outside LA. By 2010, most of its
restaurants in others states were closed, with only a handful remaining.

Pollo Loco stressed as its priority providing healthy food options to customers.
It constantly brought fresh dishes to its menu inspired by Mexican cuisine, such as
grilled chicken, fresh vegetables, pinto beans, chicken fajitas bowls, tortilla soup with
chicken and crispy, fresh salads as a side to chicken or other main courses. It offered its
own hot sauce, red chili hot sauce, jalapeno sauce, pico de gallo, guacamole, sour cream
and flour tortillas, plus a wide variety of soft drinks, iced tea and horchata (El Pollo
Loco, 2012).

Despite not being among the top ten restaurants, Pollo Tropical advertised itself as
the place to relax and enjoy a great meal prepared with fresh products and served
quickly. Originally from Miami, with its first store opening in 1998, by 2009, the
company had about 70 stores in Florida, as well as in cities including Brooklyn,
New York and Woodbridge, North Bergen, Little Ferry and Clifton, New Jersey (Enotes,
2012). It described its product as chicken always fresh, never frozen, freed of hormones
and trans-fat, marinated in citrus and then cooked on the grill. The chain estimated

1666

MD
52,9

that it cooked about 11 million kilograms (about 20 million pounds) of chicken per year.
Its menu also included pork, quesadillas, sandwiches, white rice, yellow rice, beans,
fried cassava, and cassava and plantains with cheese. Average income per transaction
was US $9.38, with entrees priced between US $4 and US $9 (Pollo Tropical, 2012).
Customers purchased and paid at the counter and brought the product to their table.
However, CEO Larry J. Harris regarded Pollo Tropical as a fast-casual restaurant due
to product taste and also because customers were allowed to observe food preparation,
giving a sense of transparency and security about food safety and ensuring freshness.
Industry experts, however, considered this chain closer to QSR than fast-casual.

US customers
The US population had grown at a rate of 0.9 percent annually over the last five years,
reaching 307 million people (Denavas et al., 2011; United States Census Bureau, 2011a).
Four ethnic groups predominated. People who identified themselves as white accounted
for 64 percent of the entire population, including citizens with family roots in Europe, the
Middle East and North Africa. The Hispanic group consisted of people from Cuba,
Mexico, Puerto Rico and Central and South America and accounted for 16 percent of the
population. African Americans accounted for 13 percent and included people from
countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and Haiti. Asians accounted for 5 percent and consisted
of people from Southeast Asia, the Far East and India, and countries such as China,
Japan, Cambodia, the Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam. The remaining 2 percent
consisted of Native Americans from Alaska and Hawaii, among other groups (United
States Census Bureau, 2011a).

Hispanics had the fastest growth rate among all ethnic groups, nearly 4 percent per
year between 2000 and 2009, reaching 49.1 million people in 2009. Mexicans accounted
for 63.0 percent of the Hispanic population, followed by Puerto Ricans (9.2 percent),
Cubans (3.5 percent), Salvadorans (3.3 percent), Dominicans (2.8 percent) and
Guatemalans (2.1 percent). Among Central Americans, Hondurans accounted for
0.7 percent, and Nicaraguans and Costa Ricans each accounted for 0.3 percent. Note that
in 2000, Salvadorans accounted for 1.9 percent of this population and Guatemalans
for 1.1 percent. Both increased substantially and reached greater representation among
Hispanics, as mentioned above (United States Census Bureau, 2011b).

It was predicted that, by 2010, 41 percent of Hispanics would be living in the
Western US and would account for 29 percent of the region’s total population, while
36 percent of Hispanics would be living in the South and comprising 16 percent of
the region’s population. In total, 14 percent of the Hispanic population lived in the
Northeast and accounted for 13 percent of the total population in the region, while
the Midwest was inhabited by 9 percent of Hispanics, who accounted for 7 percent of
that region’s population (see Figure 4 and Table XII). Of the Hispanic population,
75 percent was concentrated in California, Texas, Florida, New York, Illinois, Arizona,
New Jersey and Colorado. The state with most Mexicans was California (11.4 million),
followed by Texas (7.9 million), Arizona (1.6 million), Illinois (1.6 million) and Colorado
(0.7 million). The Salvadoran population was concentrated in California (570,000),
Texas (220,000), New York (155,000), Virginia (124,000) and Maryland (124,000).
Guatemalans were found in larger numbers in California (330,000), Florida (84,000),
Texas (74,000), New York (66,000) and New Jersey (49,000) (United States Census
Bureau, 2011b). ABC Consulting indicated that using this information and the current
number of restaurants in each state, it was possible, based on current restaurants’
density, to estimate the potential number of restaurants targeting Central Americans in

1667

Pollo Campero
in the USA

2
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Table XII.
2010 estimations for
Hispanics living in the
USA per state and region

1668

MD
52,9

whole USA. The consulting firm suggested to Denegri that it would be wise to use
New York as a benchmark because it had the highest density of restaurants
per population, and all of them reported good results.

There were about 117.5 million US households, of which 74 percent were
family households and 16 percent were non-families. In 2009, the average household
income in real terms was US $50,500. Whites accounted for 71 percent of all
households, with an average income of US $55,300. Hispanics accounted for 11.3
percent of households, with an average income of US $38,700. African Americans made
up 12.6 percent of households and had an average income of US $33,150. Finally,
Asians made up 4.0 percent of households, with an average income of US $66,500
(Denavas et al., 2011).

Household distribution by age of household head resulted in 5 percent led by
someone under age 25. Average household income was about US $31,200. In total,
16 percent of households were headed by someone between the ages of 25 and 34, and
their average income was US $51,000. Between 18 and 21 percent of households
were headed by people between 35 and 44 and 45 and 54 years old. The average income
for these groups was US $62,100 and US $65,300, respectively. In all, 17 percent of
households were headed by people between the ages of 55 and 64 years, with income
around US $58,000. Households headed by people aged 65 or older accounted for
22 percent and had a total income close to US $32,000 (Denavas et al., 2011).

Restaurant – type choices varied by ethnic group and household income and
characteristics (see Table XIII). Middle-aged consumers spent more at restaurants, as they
had higher incomes and households with more people. In general, householders aged
35-54 spent between 17 and 21 percent more than the average consumer. Older consumers
were more likely to choose full-service restaurants. When the head of household was 25 or
younger, 57 percent of the household budget was devoted to QSRs. However, the
preference for QSRs decreased as age increased. Households with one parent and children
tended to visit QSRs and devoted 61 percent of their budget to eating out, whereas
households made up of couples without children spent only 33 percent of their budget at
QSRs. The largest expenditure on eating out was that of households made up of couples
with children of school age or older still living at home. On average, they spent between
50-54 percent more than other households. Couples whose children no longer lived
at home devoted more of their budget to full-service restaurants than to QSRs.

Current market data
CUSA executives realized that demographic characteristics alone were not enough
to figure out which segment they should target. The marketing experts from ABC
Consulting analyzed psychographic characteristics (see Figure 5).

Based on different groups created through psychographics and research-driven
analysis, they identified six segments within the USA on which Pollo Campero could
focus. These segments were characterized as follows (see Figure 5). First, open-minded
food-lovers, which included 17 percent of the population, mostly whites or Hispanics
aged between 18 and 35. This group represented 29 percent of the total spending
on Limited-Service QSR/Fast Casual (FC) restaurants and was willing to seek new
experiences and tastes. Their household income ranged between US $50,000 and
US $150,000. They spent close to US $40 per visit in a fast-food restaurant and up to
US $50 in fast-casual restaurants. They visited these sites three to four times a week.

Couples without children accounted for 30 percent of the population and
represented 15 percent of QSR/FC total spending; this group generally sought highly

1669

Pollo Campero
in the USA

convenient places. Household income ranged between US$50,000 and US$100,000, and
they spent about US$11 and US$20 in quick-service and fast-casual restaurants,
respectively. They visited these places three to four times per week.

Then there were families with children, which represented 17 percent of the
population and 13 percent of total QSR/FC spending. They did not seek new flavors, so
traditional fast food was their main choice. Their household income varied greatly,
usually US$75,000 or less. They spent around US$20 at QSRs and US$28 at fast-
casuals, and they visited these places at least three times per week.

Breakfast Lunch Dinner

Categories Index

Market

share (%)

US$ Per

HH Index

Market

share (%)

US$ Per

HH Index

Market

share (%)

US$ Per

HH

Age of householder

Under 25 71 5 77 99 7 367 107 7 363

25-34 132 22 143 129 22 477 133 22 449

35-44 128 26 138 131 26 484 131 26 443

45-54 126 26 136 114 24 422 116 24 392

55-64 77 12 84 81 13 301 77 12 258

65-74 62 6 67 60 6 222 55 5 185

75 and older 28 3 30 28 3 103 23 2 76

Household income

Under $20,000 44 10 48 46 10 169 46 10 155

$20,000-$39,999 81 19 88 80 19 297 77 18 259

$40,000-$49,999 92 9 99 83 8 308 109 10 337

$50,000-$69,999 127 19 137 113 17 417 114 17 386

$70,000-$79,999 113 7 122 119 7 442 118 7 397

$80,000-$99,999 148 13 161 135 12 500 153 12 482

$100,000 and above 143 23 155 165 26 612 156 25 526

Type of household

Married couples w/o children 93 20 100 93 20 346 89 19 302

Married couples, oldest child

under 6 121 6 131 152 7 561 149 7 504

Married couples, oldest child 6-17 137 18 148 154 20 569 167 21 563

Married couples, oldest child 18

or older 153 11 165 135 10 501 144 10 487

Single parent with child under 18 91 6 99 85 5 314 117 7 394

Single person 62 18 67 58 17 213 46 14 155

Race and ethnicity

Asian 110 4 119 128 4 475 119 4 403

Black 92 11 110 90 11 332 102 12 343

Hispanic 137 16 149 122 14 453 107 12 362

Non-Hispanic white and other 95 73 103 98 75 364 99 76 333

Region

Northeast 132 25 143 95 18 350 90 17 304

Midwest 72 16 78 85 21 316 98 22 332

South 97 35 105 104 38 385 98 35 331

West 106 24 115 114 23 421 114 25 386

Note: The index is the spending ratio by segment in relation to the overall population. For example, an index of 100

indicates per household spending by a segment equal to that of the average household. An index of 150 indicates

spending by a segment 50 percent higher than the average household. The market share is the percentage of total

spending by each segment

Source: Miller and Associates (2011, p. 416)

Table XIII.
Demographic assessment
of consumer spending
for breakfast, lunch and
dinner at limited-service
restaurant

1670

MD
52,9

Some customers, approximately 15 percent of the population, saw quick service
as the most important factor. They were usually single and had no children. They
visited restaurants by themselves at least three times a week, so the limited-service
restaurants met all their needs. This group represented 4 percent of total spending on
QSR/FC. Household income was generally US$30,000 or less or between US$50,000 and
US$100,000. They usually spent about US$6 at QSRs, and they rarely visited the fast-
casual restaurants, where they spent US$8.

About 12 percent of the population looked for healthy food and were concerned
about the restaurant doing something good for the world. Committed to corporate
social responsibility and sustainability, they analyzed options in detail before making a
decision. This segment made up primarily of couples without children and with annual
household income ranging between US$50,000 and US$100,000, represented 6 percent
of total spending on QSR/FC. They visited quick-service and fast-casual restaurants
three days per week and spent US$13 and US$20, respectively.

The last segment identified was made up of the new urban family, estimated at
7 percent of the population and representing 33 percent of total QSR/FC spending.
This segment is comprised of parents aged 26-55, most with two children, and belonging
to the white or Hispanic ethnic group. With household incomes over US$100,000, they
visited a restaurant about seven times per week and spent between $63 at QSRs and $67
at the fast-casual ones.

The problem at hand
In 2010, it seemed that CUSA might not be able to achieve the targets that the Board of
Directors established for it back in 2007. As President and COO, Denegri needed to
define a strategy and propose a concrete plan to the CEO and the Board of Directors of
Pollo Campero Corporation in Guatemala. After revising the reports produced by ABC
Consulting, Denegri had to make some clear choices: should CUSA continue the growth
process based on the current brand and company positioning in the USA, or should it
change its positioning in the near future? Specifically, should CUSA expand its
customer base to include not only Central Americans, but also Hispanics from other
parts of Latin America and Americans who do not perceive themselves as Hispanic? If
so, what changes should be made for Pollo Campero in the USA?

Notes

1. At the time of the case, Juan José Gutierrez was Pollo Campero Corporation’s CEO. Denegri
was the President and COO of CUSA and, thus, reported to the CEO of Pollo Campero
Corporation and to its Board of Directors.

Source: InterBrand Design Forum. “Segmentation and Brand Strategy”, Pollo Campero,
June 18, 2010

Party size
Frequency of visits

Spending habits

Offers filling meals
Gets me in and out quickly

Offers food with a lot of flavor
Has food that tastes home-made

Is a great restaurant for a family
Uses technology in their restaurant

Offers a more adventurous experience
Is an expert at preparing their style of food
I know what to expect from the restaurant
Supports non-profit organizations
Has a high-energy atmosphere
Has a wide variety of food options
Offers good value for the money
Provides an ethnic experience

Offers a simple menu
Offers high quality food

Place for my kids
Place for adults

Segments Demographics

GenderSegment 1

Segment 2

Segment 3

Segment 4

Segment 5

Segment 6

Age

Income

Ethnicity

Marital status

Children in Home

Employment

Education

Drivers Behaviors+

Figure 5.
US mainstream

customers: drivers
and behaviors

1671

Pollo Campero
in the USA

2. ABC Consulting Co. is a fictitious name since we were not allowed to use the real name of
the consulting company.

References

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Campero USA Corp (2011), Franchise Disclosure Document, Campero USA Corp., Dallas, TX.

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Church’s Chicken (2012), “Company”, Church’s Chicken, available at: www.churchs.com/
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Daily News (2008), “Pollo Campero Franchise expanding to Wal-Mart”, Daily News, available at:
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El Pollo Loco (2012), “Compañı́a”, El Pollo Loco, available at: www.elpolloloco.com/default.aspx
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Franchise Times (2008), “What exactly is fast casual?”, Franchise Times, available at:
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Green, G. (2012), “Fast casual is still the future”, QSR Magazine, available at: www.qsrmagazine.
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Kentucky Fried Chicken (2012), “About us”, Kentucky Fried Chicken, available at: www.kfc.com/
about/ (accessed March 7, 2012).

Marketwire (2007), “Wal-Mart celebrates latin American flavor with Pollo Campero”,
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american-flavor-with-pollo-campero-nyse-wmt-792889.htm (accessed February 17, 2012).

Miller, R.K. and Associates (2011), The 2011 Restaurant, Food and Beverage Market Research
Handbook p. 416.

Pollo Tropical (2012), “Menu”, Pollo Tropical, available at: www.pollotropical.com/default.aspx
(accessed March 5, 2012).

Popeye’s (2012), “About us”, Popeye’s, available at: www.popeyes.com/story.php (accessed March 2012).

United States Census Bureau (2011a), “Population estimates 2010”, United States Census Bureau,
available at: www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf (accessed March 2012).

United States Census Bureau (2011b), “The Hispanic population 2010”, United States
Census Bureau, available at: www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf
(accessed March 2012).

Further reading

Revilla, J. and Condo, A. (2003), Pollo Campero, INCAE Business School No. 26332, INCAE
Business School Publishing, Alajuela.

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Assignment questions

. What are the key decisions facing President Roberto Denegri and his crew?

. Where does Pollo Campero compete? How does Pollo Campero compete?

. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Pollo Campero?

. What is the message to consumers that underlies the Pollo Campero brand?

. Do you think that this message would play in the USA? If so, is there a particular segment
that you would prioritize? Which one(s) and why?

Research statement

The case is based on primary research with the company, including interviews with senior
management – Roberto Denegri, President and COO; Lisken Kastalanych, VP of marketing; and
Rodolfo Bianchini, Operations Manager. It is also based on secondary research on relevant industry
trends and characteristics. The case includes the company history; a description of the competitive
landscape (fast-food industry); a description of the USA consumer profile; and market information.

Conclusions

This case will be useful in generating ideas and conclusions about appropriate ways to introduce
a brand from an emerging economy to a develop economy. It focusses on what the company’s
positioning should be, as well as the challenges of executing a new strategy. Examining the
international strategy of Pollo Campero allows exploring different strategic scenarios, such as
focussing on consumers that have a nostalgic link to the brand or targeting mainstream consumers.

References

Brady, M., Goodman, M., Hansen, T., Keller, K. and Kotler, P. (2009), “Marketing
management”, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow.

Brenes, E.R. and Mena, M. (2006), “The three vertexes of competitive strategy”,
technical note, INCAE, Business School, Alajuela.

Buaron (1981), “New-game strategies,” The McKinsey Quarterly, Vol. 12, Spring, pp. 24-40.
Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R. (1999), “Creating new market space”, Harvard

Business Review Article, Vol. 77 No. 1, pp. 83-93.
Chattopadhyay, A., Batra, R. and Ozsomer, A. (2012a), “Building brand awareness on limited

budgets”, Chapter 5 from “The New Emerging Market Multinationals: Four Strategies for
Disrupting Markets and Building Brands”, McGraw Hill, New York, NY, pp. 157-177.

Chattopadhyay, A., Batra, R. and Ozsomer, A. (2012b), “Building perceptions of high
quality, leadership, and trust”, Chapter 6 from “The New Emerging Market
Multinationals: Four Strategies for Disrupting Markets and Building Brands”, McGraw
Hill, New York, NY, pp. 177-199.

Chattopadhyay, A., Batra, R. and Ozsomer, A. (2012c), “Global brand associations and
architecture”, Chapter 7 from “The New Emerging Market Multinationals: Four Strategies
for Disrupting Markets and Building Brands,” McGraw Hill, New York, NY, pp. 199-225.

Chattopadhyay, A., Batra, R. and Ozsomer, A. (2012d), “Strategic competency building”,
Chapter 2 from “The New Emerging Market Multinationals: Four Strategies for
Disrupting Markets and Building Brands,” McGraw Hill, New York, NY, pp. 63-97.

Contractor, F.J., Kumar, V. and Kundu, S.K. (2007), “Nature of the relationship between
international expansion and performance: the case of emerging market firms”, Journal of
World Business, Vol. 42 No. 4, pp. 401-417.

Cuervo-Cazurra, A. (2012), “Extending theory by analyzing developing country
multinational companies: solving the goldilocks debate”, Global Strategy Journal,
Vol. 2 No. 3, pp. 153-167.

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Hoskisson, R.E., Eden, L., Ming Lau, C. and Wright, M. (2000), “Strategy in emerging
economies”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 43 No. 3, p. 249.

Holak, S.L. and Havlena, W.J. (1998), “Feelings, fantasies, and memories: an examination of
the emotional components of nostalgia”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 42 No. 3,
pp. 217-226.

Keller, K.L. (2002), Strategic Brand Management; Building, Measuring and Managing
Brand Equity. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Keller, K.L. (2009), “Building strong brands in a modern marketing communications
environment”, Journal of Marketing Communications, Vol. 15 Nos 2/3, pp. 139-155.

Miller, D. (1992), “The generic strategy trap”, Journal of business Strategy, Vol. 13 No. 1,
pp. 37-41.

Porter, M.E. (1980), Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York, NY.
Porter, M. E. (1996), What is Strategy?, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
Stonehouse, G. and Snowdon, B. (2007), “Competitive advantage revisited: Michael Porter

on strategy and competitiveness”, Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 16 No. 3,
pp. 256-273.

Further reading

Lopez, L.E., Kundu, S.K., and Ciravegna, L. (2009), “Born global or born regional?;
evidence from an exploratory study in the Costa Rican software industry”, Journal of
International Business Studies, Vol. 40 No. 7, pp. 1228-1238.

About the authors

Dr Esteban R. Brenes is The Steve Aronson Chaired Professor in Strategy and Agribusiness and
Chairman of the Strategy Department at the INCAE Business School in Alajuela, Costa Rica.
Professor Brenes holds a PhD from the University of Florida. His research has appeared
in international journals. In addition to his academic work he is a consultant in business and
corporate strategy, mergers and acquisitions, new venture development and family business
management. He also sits on the boards of several regional companies. Dr Esteban R. Brenes is
the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

Dr Amitava Chattopadyay is The GlaxoSmithKline Chaired Professor of the Corporate
Innovation at the INSEAD Business School, Singapore. Professor Chattopadhyay holds a PhD
from the University of Florida. His research focusses on branding and emerging multinational
companies and has appeared in several leading journals.

Luciano Ciravegna is an Associate Professor in Strategy and International Marketing
at the University of London (Royal Holloway) and INCAE Business School. Professor Ciravegna
holds a PhD from the Development Studies Institute at the London School of Economics.
His research focusses on firms’ internationalization process and different ways of doing business
in emerging market environments, especially Latin America. He also has worked as a Consultant
on competitiveness, cluster development and investment risk in emerging markets both in
Latin America and Europe.

Daniel Montoya is pursuing an MBA at the INCAE Business School and graduated with
honors as an Agronomist from the EARTH University in Lim�on, Costa Rica. He has been a
Research Assistant for the Steve Aronson Chair of Strategy and Agribusiness.

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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